New Delhi, Sept. 29 -- The new Class 9 Social Science textbook prepared by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) traces successive invasions of the Indian subcontinent, accounts of resistance by Indian rulers and communities, and the role of women leaders in confronting external forces.
Titled Understanding Society: India and Beyond-Part 2, the textbook was released on Tuesday, six months after the new academic session began. Its first part was released in June this year.
The chapter titled Resistance and Resilience says the Indian subcontinent witnessed successive invasions from the seventh century, driven by territorial expansion and religious motives. It also notes that the surplus agrarian produce of fertile plains fed by perennial river systems contributed to economic well-being and became a major reason for invasions.
The chapter documents resistance against Arab, Turkish, Mughal and European forces. It says Arab forces launched invasions by sea and land from the mid-seventh century but were confronted by Indian rulers in the Deccan, Malwa, Kashmir and Rajasthan.
It records that Mahmud, the Sultan of Ghazni, launched his first invasion in 1001 against Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty. During the 11th and 12th centuries, northern and western India faced Turkish invasions, while peninsular India remained outside Turkish control. The textbook also discusses resistance by the Hindu Shahis, Chandellas, Solankis and Chauhans.
Several women rulers are highlighted in the chapter. Queen Naiki Devi of the Chaulukya kingdom is credited with defeating Muhammad Ghori at Kasahrada near Mount Abu in 1178. Rani Abbakka Chowta, who ruled Ullal in present-day Karnataka from 1525 to 1570, is described as having successfully resisted Portuguese naval forces. Queen Rudrama Devi of the Kakatiya dynasty is also mentioned for her resistance to the Delhi Sultanate.
The textbook also records lesser-known resistance stories, including that of Muthu Virappa Nayak of Madurai, who is believed to have refused to bow to a ceremonial slipper sent by the Mughal court and instead placed his own foot inside it.
The chapter discusses the Jat resistance against the Mughal Empire, saying the community in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab faced heavy taxation and exploitation and rebelled under Gokul Jat in 1669. According to the textbook, economic hardships, along with Aurangzeb's religious policies, contributed to resentment among the Jats. It says Mughal forces struggled for months to suppress the uprising and the Jats continued their resistance.
A substantial section deals with Sikh history and the martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. The textbook describes Mughal intervention in Sikh affairs from the early 17th century in the context of the community's growing socio-cultural influence. It characterises the treatment of Sikh Gurus, particularly Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Tegh Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh, in strong terms and links their sacrifices to the evolution of Sikh resistance.
It states that Mughal emperor Jahangir ordered the execution of Guru Arjan Dev on the pretext of alleged support for his rebellious son Khusrau Mirza, calling the episode a significant turning point in Sikh history. It also records Guru Hargobind's detention at Gwalior Fort and the visits of Sikhs who gathered outside the fort to pay their respects. Regarding Guru Tegh Bahadur, the book says Aurangzeb ordered his execution in 1675 and describes his martyrdom as a turning point. It links the persecution and political pressure faced by the Sikh community with the emergence of organised resistance, collective mobilisation and, when required, armed resistance. Guru Hargobind's establishment of the Akal Takht and the concept of miri-piri, representing spiritual and worldly authority, are also discussed.
Other episodes covered include the Battle of Dewair near Udaipur in 1582 and Ahom resistance in Assam, including the Battle of Saraighat in 1671. The textbook also highlights Gingee (Senji) Fort in Tamil Nadu, which passed through the control of the Vijayanagara Nayakas, Bijapuri Sultans, Mughals, Marathas, French and English, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2025.
Concluding the chapter, NCERT says resistance and resilience are closely linked, with resilience providing the ability to endure and sustain resistance. It adds that the period should not be viewed merely as a history of invasion and resistance, but as one marked by both conflict and cooperation.
NCERT has also expanded the presence of women leaders in its Social Science textbooks. Earlier this year, the Class 8 textbook Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Part 1 featured figures including Rani Durgavati, Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar in discussions on leadership, governance and resistance.
Published by HT Digital Content Services with permission from Millennium Post.